Critically Analyse Two Theoretical Approaches to Cognitive Development Essay

The rationale for the essay exit be to discuss how too soon pip-squeakhood memories cease contribute to Post Traumatic filter out Disorder (post injurytic stress disorder) afterward in bounteous life. Negative wee experiences such as boor abhorrence lowlife score a major move on the develop custodyt of the head teacher. Similar to adults with posttraumatic stress disorder, s concordrren wealthy person disturbance sleeping, discharge non control their memories of the accidental injury and be constantly on insomniac (Kuafman, Plotsky, Meyerhof & Charney 2000). Memory alterations connected to posttraumatic stress disorder form a compound inter congenership amidst idea and mind (Wilson & Keane 2004).The essay give there obeisance address a mental and neurobiological nuzzlees which experience been typically associated with the diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder. The psychological approach for discussion will be Freuds(1896) psychodynamic mock up of neurosis which was one of the get-go of all paradigms to patch emphasis on external stressor events (Wilson 2004). The essay will tighten on the genus Hippocampus, a superstar field of force involved in entrepot and short discuss the amygdala. Saplosky (1996) neurobiological topic in simile to stress, glucorcotoids and genus Hippocampus, a nous playing field involved in keeping mathematical process.These brain atomic number 18as will be discussed in relation to disturbing memories and deficits in retention functioning (Silver, McAllister & Yodofsky 2011). Firstly it will be necessary to discuss what the edge w arho utilize means. A simple definition of keeping would be a persons power to remember things or the faculty by which the mind stores and remembers selective training (Oxford 1964). A psychological definition is more(prenominal) complex and although remembering is seen as a single precondition it refers to a pot of human capacities (Medin & Pash ler 2002). on that point are 3 major processes involved in computer reposition encoding, storage and retrieval each appendage represents a stage in holding processing (Sternberg 2009). Encoding is the process by which a computer reposition board is formed where teaching is heightend into a useable form and stored in retrospection for later(prenominal) use (Nevid 2009). The learn scum bag be encoded in antithetic ways acoustically, iconic and semantically. Stored memories are preferably often in the un sensible, implicit part of the mind and the retrieval process allows s to bring most memories choke end into the conscious(p) mind (Sternberg 2009).William crowd together (1890) was one of the first to suggest memory was not a single system but rather comprises of a short and great term memory. James (1890) distinguished amidst patriarchal memory as being conscious of what has just happened and secondary winding memory as the knowledge of events that have left our mind (Thorn & Page 2009). Hebb (1949) later supported James (1890) and suggested there was a neuro-physiological limpidion between primary and secondary memory.Hebb (1949) proposed primary memory ricochets temporarily reverberating electrical use where as secondary memory leave alones from permanent wave synaptic change (Bernstain, Penner, Clarke-Stewert & Roy 2008). Waugh and Norman (1965) expound on James (1890) scheme and proposed the multi-store model of memory. The multi-store model proposed verbal stimuli was perceived in the primary memory which had a truly limited capacity. As new stimuli were considered and as the capacity of the primary memory was reached the stimuli were displaced and disregarded (Baine 1986).However when stimuli was rehearsed it was either retained in short term storage in the primary memory or it was transferred to commodious term storage in the secondary memory. The more often cultivation was rehearsed in primary memory the more promis ing it would be transferred to secondary memory (Baine 1986). Waugh and Norman (1965) model was extended by Atkinson and Shiffron (1968) they suggested that for knowledge to become a memory it had to ladder through and through and through a system. The system starts with the stunning memory or immediate memory associated with visual (iconic) and auditory (echoic) perceptual processing.This is where information is first detected and if attended to will thus enter the short term memory (STM). If the information which is now in the STM is rehearsed it will enter the foresightful term memory (LTM). However if no rehearsal make passs the information is forgotten and bewildered from STM through the process of switch or decay. The encoding or transferring of information into long term storage therefore depends on short term memory (Dehn 2011).The psychobiology of learning and memory suggests that traumatic memory is uite different from ordinary memory and investigators such as Van der Kolk (1996) suggest symptoms of PTSD conclusion from multifaceted nuero-hormonal changes that occur as a moment of chronic stress. These changes can be accompanied by the consume of adrenalin through the noradrenergic system which whitethorn play an definitive role in the producement of encoded, stored and retrieved information. PTSD can be defined as an incident where a person is exposed to serious menace of injury or death and experiences organic fear (Shiromani, Keane & Le Doux 2009).There are typically devil types of memory disturbances place in PTSD, intrusive memories and impoverish memory functioning (Mace 2000). Intrusive memories are events that are retrieved involuntarily and experient as flare backs of the original trauma, and triggered automatically by situations that reflect aspects of the traumatic event (Mace 2000). Impoverish memory refers to diminished encoding or impaired retrieval abilities, and deficits in declarative memory. atomisation of memor ies whitethorn occur, both autobiographical and amnestic trauma cerebrate gaps in the memory, which occur for minutes to days and not imputable to ordinary forgetting.In extreme cases it is suggested that super stressful experiences particularly in tike hood maybe forgotten for a period of years (Friedman, Keane & Resick 2010). Human learning involves the interactions of memory systems arbit range by distinct cerebral networks, of which can be split into the declarative (explicit) or facts that can be assessed verbally and non-declarative, behaviours associated with mad stiuations (implicit). These memory systems are mediated primarily by the hippocampus and amygdala, brain areas involved in learning, and emotional memory (Layton & Krikorian 2002).There is interestingly a biological distinction between these areas which is mediated by structures outside the hippocampus. In the renowned case of HM where vilify to the hippocampus impaired declarative memory yet non-declarati ve memory was unaffected (Scolvile, Milner 1957). The declarative memory can be split into two cat selfries episodic which stores specific personal experiences, such as remembering a first day at school and semantic which stores factual information such as knowing the capital of France.Freud (1893) early possibility of neurosis known as conquering possibleness was one of the first to place emphasis on external stressor events, he suggested the symptoms could only be understood if they were traced back to a traumatic events specifically early child hood experiences of internal subjugation or assault (Leys 2000). However it was not the experience itself which was traumatic but its slow revival as a memory this was later on the individual had reached sexual adulthood and could therefore grasp its meaning (Leys 2000).Freud (1893) force upon the notion that puerility sexual experiences resulted is dissociation, denial, repression and early(a) primitive defence mechanisms (Fried man, Keane & Resick 2007). Freud (1893) suggested that during development a child could potentially experience a range of traumatic events. As a result the victim typically uses repression an ego defence to suppress traumatic memories and erstwhile in the un-conscious or implicit mind, mental case symptoms might occur as a result of active forces being employ to the un-conscious or explicit memory (Wilson & lindy 2004).The repressed memories do not change when they are retained in the un-conscious (implicit) memory and will emerge via the activation of situational reminding cues (Wilson & lindy hop 2004). His theory yet was not hearty received in Conservative capital of Austria and he revised the seduction theory in 1896, he concluded that the memories of his patients may have in-fact been fantasies and have their origins in the libidinal drives and conflicted attachments to parental figures ( Mason 2003).Freuds early thinking regarding trauma was largely constitute on childr en as sexual beings from make onwards, and that this sexual instinct was based on libidinal forces that could lead to intra-psychic conflict the Oedipal complex (Mason 2003). This led to psychodynamic theory, a complementary approach emphasising unconscious influences on issues related to memory and PTSD, and seeing suceptability as a result of factors like poor childhood relationships, uncertain attachments & sexual abuse (Friedman, Keane & Resick 2010). flowing confirmable data however clearly supports Freuds (1893) original theory regarding the psychological jounce of child abuse and as a result children have been shown to suffer from PTSD and symptoms associated with cognitive, emotional and behavioural development (Deblinger, McLeer, Atkins, Ralph & Foa 1989). Current research has brought into debate Freuds (1897) suspicions of fanciful fantasies, the re skip overed memory/ false memory debate brings such childhood memories into question.The theory suggests child hood memo ries are not reliable and it is relatively easy to lay down memories for events that did not really occur through ideas suggested by over enthusiastic therapists the media or self help books related to sexual abuse (Pezdek & Banks 1996). Hyman and Billing (1998) conducted a study to investigate if students would create false child hood memories. The study tack together about 25% of students created false childhood memories after being encouraged to imagine the suggested child hood event (Hymann &Billing 1998).A study by Clancey, Schacter, McNally & pitman (2000) in like manner pointed to gender bias in relation to false memories, they used the Deese/Roediger-McDermott paradigm using four control groups of women. The study found women with PTSD had a higher rate of false recognition of critical lures than women with abuse histories without PTSD, non abused non PTSD women, or men with out abuse or PTSD (Bremnar, Krause, Shobe & Kihlstrom (2000). Women with PTSD were also found to have poorer memory for previously studied words, which is legitimate with the findings of declarative memory deficits in PTSD (Bremnar et al 2000).Studies such as Sapolsky (1996) have led to the idea that external stressor events could have a profound impact on the biology and behaviour of organisms. Just as Freuds theory suggests, external stressor events have an impact on triggering unconscious implicit memories through their retrieval via situational cues. Neuro biological studies have shown retrieval is accompanied by adrenaline spillage which may unless aggravate the traumatic memory (De Kloet, Oitzl & Vermetten 2008). The noradrenergic system is responsible for the booking or flight rapid reception to stress.This is associated with increased firing of noradrenalin neurons in the brainstem which enhance the release of noradrenalin in the brain and strengthens memories connected to emotional events (Bremner, Krystal, Southwick & Charney 1996). Cahill and McGaugh (1998) suggest adrenaline is shown to enhance the memory in a dose dependant way, it seems to enhance retention thorough its effects on the limbic structures, including the amygdala complex. There fore when a stressful event is undergo adrenaline is released, the noradrenergic system may then play an important role in the enhanced encoding of trauma related memories.The accompanied release of adrenaline when a traumatic event is experienced may kick upstairs strengthen the traumatic memory trace. A positive feed back loop may then result in deeply engraved memories, which are expressed as intrusive recollections and specious backs (Cahill & McGaugh 1998). Child abuse and separate stressor events can have lasting effects on the hippocampus, the brain area involved in declarative, implicit, unconscious memory. The hippocampus is part of the limbic system, and part of a group of structures that surrounds the brain stem.These structures play an important role in the experience of emotions motivation and memory (Litwack 2010). Sapolsky (1996) conducted studies on rats in his Stanford University laboratory, he concluded that glucocorticoids can cause rats brains to shrivel as the dendrite branches that travel by with other neurons wither away. Sapolsky, Romero, Munk (2000) found extend exposure to stress causes irreversible damage in rats, the findings therefore suggest long term exposure to glucocorcitoids in humankind with PTSD may also result in permant nueron damage to the hippocampus and deficits in declarative memory.Further neuroimaging studies have found smaller hippocampus volume in people with PTSD, this was found in magnetic resonance imaging imaging of Vietnam veterans and adults with a history of child abuse relative to healthy compare subjects (Francati, Vermetten & Bremner 2007). The subject and theory which has been discussed far exceeds the parameters of this essay, however the greatest attempt has been made to cover as much of the subject as possi ble.It would seem there is mounting proof to support Freuds (1893) original seduction theory that early traumatic childhood experiences can lead to memory disturbances later in adult life. Memories have been found to be engraved even deeper by the noragenric system and the increased release of adrenaline caused by exxecive stress associated with PTSD. Sapolsky (1996) and Sapolsky, Romero, Munk (2000) have further discussed the impact of stress on the brain and effects on the hippocampus an important structure in the functioning of memories.Nueroimaging has further shown shrinkage in the hippocampus in adults whom have been diagnosed with PTSD and have experienced a history of child abuse. There has however been studies by hyman and billing and Clancey, Schacter, McNally & Pitman (2000) that suggest some memories can be planted or imagined, via the influence of media and other factors, and a gender bias concerning deficits in declarative memory. However with scientific certainty it would seem early childhood trauma could result in PTSD later in adult life.